As I organized the knowledge and information I've gathered in instructional technology, information science, and instructional theory to graphically represent their interrelationships, I've developed a deeper understanding of and appreciation for instructional theory being at the center of all instructional development decisions. However, I believe that instructional design methodology is the conduit that connects these three fields of study (instructional technology, information science, and instructional theory). Here is a look at my graphical paradigm (will launch a new browser window).

Because my primary interest lies within instructional technology, I would like to be able to state that technology always helps improve instruction. However, research has shown that media-based teaching and learning is not inherently better than traditional teaching and learning methods. Regardless, there is evidence to support the position that technology-based teaching and learning is effective and that people may learn more efficiently, and in some instances, more effectively because of improved instructional strategies (Thompson, Simonson & Hargrave, 1996). This evidence reinforces my position that instructional design is the crucial link between instructional theory, instructional technology, and information science.

Instructional design is a systematic methodology for sifting through all of the related aspects of instructional theory that leads to the selection of the appropriate instructional strategies, facilitation methods and/or instructional technologies for each instructional task. Instructional design incorporates the findings of educational research and suggests practical applications of these findings.

Instructional design and instructional technology are closely related. In fact, in business and industry the two terms are synonymous. This is supported by the following definition of instructional technology that was reported to the President and Congress of the United States in 1970:

However, within educational institutions, the primary meaning of instructional technology is the integration of technology (i.e., computers, compact disc, Internet, etc.) into instructional practices. Technology integration has wide range of instructional applications from using a computer to project visuals in a classroom to teaching a course entirely on-line via the World-Wide-Web. Because of education's view of instructional technology, I have separated the areas of instructional design and instructional technology on my graphic paradigm.

Once the instructional task is identified, instructional design decision-making begins by considering the different aspects of instructional theory. Therefore, I will discuss instructional theory next.

On my graphic paradigm, I have included a number of different factors that are directly related to selecting an instructional theory. They are Domains of Learning, Motivation, Stages of Development, and Learning Styles. I feel these areas are the most influential in determining the appropriate instructional theory for the learning task. There are numerous instructional theories that generally support either a behaviorist or constructivist philosophical approach to learning. This diagram illustrates some learning theories and their philosophical relationships. This diagram is not inclusive of all learning theories.

Behaviorism is a very structured approach that uses positive and negative reinforcement. A constructivist approach allows learners to determine their learning path. Programmed learning, structured learning and computer-based instruction support a behaviorist approach to learning. Some examples of learning theories that support a constructivist learning approach include discovery learning, resource-based learning and collaborative learning.

A number of learning theories can be applied to either philosophical approach, including the following:

• active learning (learning by doing);

• situated learning (provide the content in a context the learner

• can relate to);

• multimedia learning (target different learning styles through

• using different media to present information);

• problem-based learning (learners receive information that leads

• them to solve problems that are presented);

The first step in determining which learning theory, or theories, apply to the learning task(s) is to identify the learning domain that supports each task.

There are three domains of learning. The cognitive domain deals with thought processes and cannot be measured by mere observation. The affective domain addresses the emotional side of learning and strives to change learner attitudes. The psychomotor domain deals with the physical manipulation of objects.

I think the best way to illustrate some of instructional design’s decision-making is to develop three examples of learning tasks. Each example will represent one of the three learning domains.

Note that the learning objectives provide more information about each learning task and define the target audience. After the learning objectives for the learning task are determined, other aspects of instructional theory are collectively considered to identify the most effective teaching method(s) for that objective. As other aspects are considered, the learning objectives may be further defined. The next aspect of instructional theory I will discuss is motivation.

Example 2: The learning task is to stimulate an awareness among employees of increased incidence of vehicular accidents that occur when backing-up a company-owned vehicle.

The learning domain is affective because creating awareness of a situation deals with learner attitudes.

Learning Objective: All company employees will become aware of the increased incidence of vehicular accidents that occur when backing-up a company-owned vehicle in order to achieve zero accidents during the current fiscal year.

Example 3: The learning task is to properly administer breaths and compressions when administering CPR.

The learning domain is psychomotor because the learner is going to perform a physical activity that is directly observable. Once the learning domain for a task is determined, learning objectives are developed. Learning objectives provide the criteria on which the educational lesson is designed, developed, conducted and evaluated. Objectives also describe the performance that is expected by the learner. When learning objectives for the task are determined, certain teaching methods may be deemed more appropriate than others for student achievement of each objective. Referring to my three examples of learning tasks, I’ll present examples of learning objectives that support each example task.

Learning Objective: Participants, who are voluntarily seeking CPR recertification, will properly administer breaths and compressions when administering CPR.

Motivation

I included motivation in my paradigm because it is important to determine what is motivating the learners to participate in a learning activity. To determine the learners' motivation, ask the following:

• Do they have a particular need to fulfill?

• Are they required to attend the course?

• Are they just interested in the subject matter?

Determining why learners will attend the course under development is helpful when planning instructional strategies. Let me expand on the prior three examples.

Example 2: All company employees will become aware of the increased incidence of vehicular accidents that occur when backing-up a vehicle in order to achieve zero accidents during the current fiscal year.

This objective implies that acquiring this awareness is mandatory and will be required of everyone. It is probably reasonable to assume that the majority of employees will not be very motivated to achieve this awareness.

Example 3: Participants, who are voluntarily seeking CPR recertification, will properly administer breaths and compressions when administering CPR.

Since these learners are voluntarily seeking recertification, they are more likely to be motivated to achieve recertification.

Regardless of the instructional theory being employed, motivational strategies should be incorporated into teaching methodologies throughout the instructional process that target the learners' attitudes, needs, emotions, competence and reinforcement. The challenge for educators is to stimulate curiosity about the subject matter, show how the learning will be immediately useful and increase the confidence and satisfaction of the learner by including activities that are achievable and challenging.

Perry (1970) conducted research with university men to determine if their cognitive complexity changed during their undergraduate study and concluded that there is a progression of cognitive development that occurs during the course of the college experience. On my diagram, this is labeled as Stages of Development. Perry determined that freshman used dualistic thinking in which knowledge and truth are absolute and the teacher is the sole source of knowledge. By the junior year, most had progressed to multiplistic thinking in which different versions of knowledge and truth were acceptable and the teacher's role is to model good methods of scholarship. By graduation, many had become contextual, or relativistic, thinkers in which knowledge and truth are viewed within a specific context and teachers assume the role of a guide or consultant.

The notion of learning stages is significant because teaching methods need to be versatile in order to help students progress through the stages and still support students who are at different stages yet within the same classroom. Let me further expand on the three examples.

Example 2: All company employees will become aware of the increased incidence of vehicular accidents that occur when backing-up a vehicle in order to achieve zero accidents during the current fiscal year.

All company employees is a very broad audience. It is reasonable to assume that because this audience is so diverse, a mix of dualistic, multiplistic and contextual thinkers will be in this audience.

Example 3: About 100 senior physical therapy majors, who are voluntarily seeking CPR recertification, will properly administer breaths and compressions when administering CPR.

Since these learners are college seniors, it is reasonable to assume that there are both multiplistic and contextual thinkers in the audience. These learners expect the facilitator to be an expert in the area of CPR and model behavior.

The characteristics of the target audience will determine the instructional activities. To address different learning stages, it is preferable to incorporate a variety of activities that help the learners progress through the stages of development.

Typically learning style refers to whether someone is a language learner (prefers written and spoken text), numerical learner (prefers numbers) or an auditory-visual-kinesthetic learner (prefers personal experiencing). However, learning style is a broader concept that encompasses interpersonal physiological, affective and cognitive styles.

Interpersonal style refers to an individual's preference to learn in an independent (autonomous) manner or in a social (relational) environment that enables the learner to feel connected to other learners. Physiological styles are learning behaviors that are related to physical or physiological factors such as responses to temperature, light, and sound, time-of-day, and age-related changes. Affective style includes the reasons for participation, a competitive versus a cooperative attitude and level of anxiety. Cognitive styles involve how the learner processes information. Analytical cognitive style refers to thinking in a logical, systematic, and sequential way. Conversely, learners with a holistic cognitive style think globally and can simultaneously process many concepts.

Because there will never be a class in which all learners have the same learning style, it is preferable to incorporate a variety of teaching methods in order to target all of the different learning styles.

As previously defined, instructional technology is the integration of technology into teaching practices. Instructional design is the junction where instructional theory and the effectiveness of various technology-based instructional methods meet. When designing a course, it is extremely important to design the course to meet the educational goals, not for a particular medium. It is equally important to not always design courses to be delivered in the same medium. Instructional design provides the structure for considering the most essential and effective elements of the course and how technology can enhance learning those elements.

On my graphic paradigm, I have identified some of the major areas of instructional technology – computer-based (Web-based), distance education, the Internet, electronic communication, instructional aids/tools and video-based instructional technologies. I have linked together video-based, computer-based (Web-based), distance education, the Internet, electronic communication and video-based because those technologies can overlap. For example, electronic communication is also computer-based and distance education can utilize the Internet.

I'd like to refer to my three example in regard to decisions related to incorporating instructional technology.

Example 2: All company employees will become aware of the increased incidence of vehicular accidents that occur when backing-up a vehicle in order to achieve zero accidents during the current fiscal year.

Through implementation of the instructional design process, it is determined that the most effective teaching method is video, an instructional technology, for the following reasons: Video is an extremely effective medium for affecting attitude change. Because all employees need to be exposed to this information, video is an ideal delivery method because it can be easily disseminated. Video can be viewed by large groups. Video assures that all employees receive the exact same message.

Example 3: About 100 senior physical therapy majors, who are voluntarily seeking CPR recertification, will properly administer breaths and compressions when administering CPR.

By applying the instructional design process, it is determined that the following combination of teaching methods should be employed: Video demonstration that is projected so all the students can view it together in an auditorium. An instructor-led demonstration to small groups that allows time for questions and answers. Student practice on a computerized "dummy" that gives feedback as breaths and compressions are administered. The different teaching methods address different learning styles. The instructional technologies that are utilized includes a video demonstration and a computerized "dummy."

Instructional design decisions are mostly subjective because course design is not an exact science. However, it is imperative that persons employed in the field of education be knowledgeable about instructional theory and instructional technology in order to design, develop and implement the most effective instruction.

The coursework I have completed in the area of Information Science focused on using the computer to store information and the design of the human-computer interface. I selected these courses because of their direct relationship to computer-based instructional technologies. On my graphic paradigm, I have connected both directly to box representing the computer-based [instructional technology].

Educational research on cognitive processing is also directly related to the field of information science. In my doctoral coursework, this research regarded the design of the human-computer interface. Many guidelines of human-computer interface design and screen design have been suggested for instructional applications. These guidelines refer to text placement and format, appropriate use of graphics, effective use of color, and consistent placement of functional areas of the computer interface. The knowledge I’ve gained from the information science field has aided me in designing more effective screens and interfaces for computer-based and web-based instruction.

I hope I have conveyed the notion that many factors effect how a course is designed and developed, especially within the fields of instructional theory and instructional technology. My three fields of study are closely interrelated and have served me well in practical application within work settings. In closing, an analogy that supports my graphical paradigm of the interrelationships of these fields of study is a stone bridge. On this bridge, instructional theory is the keystone to instructional technology and information science and instructional design is the pathway the bridge creates.

Mackeracher, D. (1996). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto Ontario Canada: Culture Concepts Inc.

Perry, W.G., (1970). Intellectual and ethical development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Thompson, A.D., Simonson, M.R., Hargrave, C.P. (1996). Educational technology: A review of the research. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.

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